Systems Science Ph.D. Program, Portland State University, P.O.Box 751, Portland,
OR 97207-0751
The multiple perspective (MP) concept was developed in the late 1970s based
on the author's systems analysis experience in the corporate planning area
and in academe. Specifically, the traditional science-based "technical/analytic"
perspective (T) is augmented by two other types of perspective, the "organizational/institutional"
(0) and the 'personal/individual" (P). It recognizes that decision
makers cannot rely solely on technical analysis and modeling when dealing
with complex real-life systems. Graham Allison's book Essence of Decision:
Explaining the Cuban A4issite Crisis (Little Brown & Co., 1971) and
West Churchman's The Design of Inquiring Systems (Basic Books, 1 971 ) provided
a basis for the MP approach.
The T perspective: Problems are simplified by abstraction, idealization,
and isolation from the real world. The implicit assumptions and characteristics
include reductionism, reliance on scientific logic and rationality, problem-solution
focus, quantification, use of data and models, optimization, and objectivity
of the analyst. Jay Forrester's systems dynamics modeling of companies,
cities, and the world is an example. The power and success of this technical
world view and its value in yielding remarkable insights and excellent predictions
in science and engineering remains unchallenged. But, as the recent work
in complexity science has underscored, it has serious limitations in dealing
with complex, nonlinear, adaptive systems. Unfortunately, most realworld
sociotechnical systems are of this kind.
The 0 perspective: The organizational perspective focuses on process rather
than product, on action rather than problem-solving. The critical question
is "does something need to be done?" and "who needs to do
it?" rather than "what is the optimal solution"? Justice
and fairness, bargaining and compromise, satisficing, incremental change,
and routinization (SOPS) characterize this perspective.
The P perspective: This views the world through the eyes of the individual.
While cause and effect is a fundamental paradigm of the T perspective, challenge
and response animates P. Each individual actor in a decision process has
a unique set of patterns that inform his or her intuition. Characteristics
of this perspective include learning, importance of the self, power and
influence, leaders and followers, need for beliefs, creativity, charisma,
and fear of change.
Applied to a given system, each perspective yields insights not attainable
with the others. Together, T, 0, and P form what Churchman calls a Singerian
inquiring system. "Cross-cuing" and integration of the perspectives
must be done by the decision maker. An analogy is the American courtroom,
where the jury considers various perspectives (witness testimonies) and
even prototype integrations (by the prosecutor and defense attorney), but
must undertake its own integration to arrive at a verdict. Furthermore,
as any executive knows, science-based "replication" and "validation"
are not meaningful concepts in this context.
The approach has been successfully applied to many complex systems, including
risk management (Exxon Valdez, Bhopal), health care, corporate acquisition,
and regional planning. At least a half dozen Ph.D. dissertations have used
the approach. A fourth perspective type to represent religion/mythology
(R), like T an artifact created by the human mind, has also been considered.
A summary of the key features:
1. T, 0, and P together form a superior basis for decision making than T
alone. Each type offers insights not attainable with the others. The interaction
among the perspectives contributes further important insights.
2. The choice of perspectives requires judgment; it is usually not possible
to consider all perspectives. A good balance among the three types is always
desirable, but there exists no "correct" weighting formula. In
business the ability to choose and integrate perspectives that marks the
effective executive.
3. 0 and P are case-specific. Obtaining input for 0 and P uses different
processes than it does for T (for example, one-on-one interviews).
4. Perspectives are dynamic and change over time.
5. T usually dominates in the planning phase, 0 and P dominate in the decision
and implementation phases.
P is often the key to effective communication.
References:
1. H. A. Linstone, Multipte Perspectives for Decision Making, North-Holland,
N.Y., 1984.
Note: An updated, revised edition is expected to be published in 1999 by
Ar-tech House.
2. H. A. Linstone with 1. 1. Mitroff, The Challenge of the 27st Century,
State University of New York Press,
Albany, NY, 1994.
3. H. A. Linstone, 'Multiple Perspectives: Concept, Applications, and User
Guidelines". Systems Practice
2(3), 1 989.